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Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, remains one of the greatest medical challenges because of its multifactorial nature. In recent years (2015-2025), benzothiazole-based compounds have gained increasing attention as promising scaffolds for the development of anti-Alzheimer agents. This comprehensive review focuses on the biological evaluation and structure-activity relationship (SAR) trends of benzothiazole derivatives targeting key enzymes and pathways implicated in AD. These include acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), β-secretase (BACE1), monoamine oxidase A and B (MAO-A, MAO-B), receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), human DYRK1A (hDYRK1A), and human CLK1 (hCLK1). Benzothiazole hybrids with diverse heterocyclic frameworks have been explored, and SAR analysis suggests that the presence of electron-withdrawing substituents in the molecules significantly enhances their potency against Alzheimer's targets. Many of these compounds demonstrate strong in vitro activity, multitarget inhibition potential, and favorable interaction profiles in docking studies, highlighting their relevance as multitarget-directed ligands. This review consolidates data from the last decade to provide insights into the structural features contributing to anti-Alzheimer's activity and offers directions for the rational design of more selective, efficacious, and brain-penetrant benzothiazole derivatives. Future research should focus on optimizing pharmacokinetic properties, improving blood-brain barrier permeability, and validating in vivo efficacy of the designed molecules. Overall, benzothiazole remains a valuable and versatile scaffold in the ongoing search for effective therapeutics for AD. Show less

The mixed particles of Myricetin (MYR)/Chitooligosaccharide (COS)/Astaxanthin (AST) had not study to therapeutic effects on Alzheimer's disease (AD) combined with depression. In this study, the mixed particles of MYR/COS/AST were investigate the inhibitory activities against cholinesterase (ChE) and monoamine oxidase (MAO), possessing good activity were further assayed to inhibit β-amyloid1-42 (Aβ ChE and MAO inhibitory activities by Ellman and Holts method. Aβ aggregation were evaluated by thioflavin T assay, BACE1 inhibition used the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based. The protective effect were tested by against L-Glutamate (L-Glu)-induced HT22 cell damage, Cu The results showed that the mass ratio of the mixed particles MYR/COS/AST was 10:10:3, which exhibited the best inhibitory activities on AChE, MAO, also exhibited inhibition against Aβ These studies provide the technical data for ensuring potential treatment of AD combined with depression of the mixed particles of MYR/COS/AST (10:10:3). Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and neuroblastoma are distinct conditions that affect the nervous system. However, they share some molecular similarities, particularly concerning the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and related pathways. While previous studies have demonstrated a correlation between neurodegenerative diseases and various tumors, the causality and direction of their relationship remain unclear. Oleacein, one of the most abundant polyphenols in Extra Vergin Olive Oil (EVOO) may exert neuroprotective and/or antitumor effects. In this study, we explored the effects of the polyphenol oleacein, obtained by a simple and efficient sustainable semi-synthesis starting from natural oleuropein, on AD-related genes in SHSY5Y, a human neuroblastoma cell line, and in 3Tg-iAstro cells, immortalized astrocytes from the hippocampus of 3xTg-AD mice, to identify potential shared biological pathways. Show less

Current in vitro enzyme inhibition assays often involve subjective data analysis based on the researcher's experience. In this study, we developed a multi-dimensional quantitative integration platform (MDQIP) that uses a model to objectively calculate and rank compound activities, addressing the limitations of traditional "experience-driven" evaluations, accelerates the screening and evaluation of potential AChE inhibitors from Red Gastrodia elata, offering a more efficient approach to drug discovery. Ultrafiltration-LC screening identified parishin A as having the most stable binding, with binding degree and recovery rates of 98.85% and 99.39%, respectively. Molecular docking revealed that parishins A and C were the strongest AChE inhibitors, exhibiting stable binding through hydrogen bonds, π-alkyl, and π-π interactions. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability of these compounds, with binding energies of -82.65 ± 4.24 and - 80.69 ± 4.19 kcal/mol. Enzyme kinetics showed that parishins A and C are mixed-type inhibitors, with IC Show less

Peripheral injury reprograms metabolism in spinal cord oligodendrocytes, initiating a molecular cascade that drives chronic pain via neuronal β-amyloid (Aβ) release. After injury, mouse spinal oligodendrocytes downregulate myelin protein synthesis and upregulate lipid biosynthesis-but reroute lipids toward neuroplastic remodeling and away from myelin maintenance. This metabolic reallocation disrupts myelin integrity and axonal function, causing neuronal accumulation of amyloid precursor protein, enhanced expression of its processing β-secretase BACE1, and local release of Aβ peptides. Blocking Aβ production or clearing Aβ deposits stops the transition to pain chronicity. Deleting the lysosomal lipid hydrolase NAAA in oligodendrocytes prevents both injury-induced Aβ production and chronic pain development. The findings identify an unexpected mechanistic link between chronic pain and Alzheimer's-like neurodegeneration, positioning Aβ as a target for therapeutic intervention. Show less

Oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition act synergistically to drive Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Effective treatment, therefore, requires multi-targeted strategies capable of addressing these interconnected pathological mechanisms. Here, an Odorranalectin (OL)-conjugated lipid nanoparticle (siB/QU@L-OL) was engineered for efficient intranasal delivery of β-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) siRNA (siB) and quercetin (QU). siB/QU@L-OL prepared via microfluidics exhibited uniform size distribution, high encapsulation efficiency, and robust stability. Following intranasal administration, OL surface modification enabled binding to L-fucose residues expressed on the olfactory epithelium, reducing mucociliary clearance and facilitating brain transport. Show less

In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic potential of DMB, a berberine derivative known for its enhanced bioavailability and reduced toxicity. DMB was synthesized and administered orally at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg in an in vivo rat model of insulin resistance-induced Alzheimer's disease (AD). This model was established using a combination of a high-fat diet (HFD), streptozotocin (35 mg/kg; intraperitoneally), and amyloid-β Show less

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN), a severe complication of diabetes, is a key risk factor for diabetic foot (DF) that contributes highly to amputation and mortality. The pathogenesis of DPN remains unclear and complex, with no effective treatments currently available. Monoamine oxidase (MAO), a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent enzyme, catalyzes the oxidative deamination of critical biogenic amines. The MAO family comprises two subtypes, MAOA and MAOB, which play distinct roles in pathophysiology. In this study, we identified that MAOB but not MAOA is pathologically upregulated in the sciatic nerve (SN) tissues of DPN patients and in the SN/dorsal root ganglion (DRG) tissues of DPN model mice. Notably, the selective MAOB inhibitor Khellin (Khe) effectively alleviated DPN-like pathology in mice. To explore the mechanistic role of MAOB in DPN, we performed proteomic profiling of DRG tissues from DPN mice and validated the findings using a MAOB-specific knockdown DPN mice model treated with adeno-associated virus (AAV) 8-MAOB-RNAi. Our results demonstrate that Khe targets MAOB to mitigate DPN pathology through HIF-1α/BACE1/Aβ/NLRP3/tau pathway, mediated by Schwann cell/DRG neuron crosstalk. All findings suggest that selective MAOB inhibition represents a promising therapeutic strategy for DPN, with Khe as a potential candidate for clinical translation against this disease. Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by a complex pathophysiology, involving abnormal aggregation of amyloid b (Ab) and tau proteins, neuroinflammatory responses, and significant synaptic dysfunction, which collectively contribute to cognitive decline. This review offers a novel perspective by focusing on the pivotal role of synaptic plasticity in the pathogenesis of AD, underscoring its potential as a therapeutic target. The study uniquely synthesizes current molecular and clinical research to illustrate how Ab and tau pathologies disrupt synaptic signaling and structure, further exacerbated by neuroinflammation. We explore both pharmacological interventions, such as BACE1 inhibitors and tau stabilizers, and non-pharmacological strategies, including cognitive therapy and neuromodulation techniques, which have shown promise in modulating synaptic plasticity and slowing cognitive deterioration. Despite these advancements, the field faces significant challenges, including the complexity of AD's underlying mechanisms and limitations in early diagnosis. This review not only highlights the significance of synaptic plasticity in AD but also proposes future research directions that could lead to innovative therapeutic approaches, offering new hope for effective treatment strategies. Show less

Beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is a key enzyme in amyloid-β generation and remains an important target in Alzheimer's disease (AD) drug discovery. Here, we present NeuroBACE-ML, a reliability-aware screening framework for high-throughput prioritization of potent BACE1 inhibitors from small-molecule libraries. Human BACE1 bioactivity records were curated from ChEMBL and standardized on a pIC Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline and memory loss. A key feature of AD is the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides in the form of extracellular plaques. The amyloid cascade hypothesis suggests that the pathogenesis of AD is initiated by the cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1). Numerous therapeutic approaches have been pursued to target BACE1 due to its crucial role in AD. However, the complexity of AD and the localization of BACE1 in the brain have posed challenges, leading to the failure of clinical trials and, in some cases, even exacerbating disease progression. Specifically, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents the entry of many molecules, making BACE1 a difficult target to approach. Recent advancements in BACE1 therapy have shifted the focus from traditional enzyme inhibitor-based therapeutics to modulators, antibody therapy, and gene therapy. These approaches offer several advantages, including the ability to efficiently cross the BBB and provide targeted treatment. In this review, we explore the latest developments in modulators, antibody therapy, and gene therapy targeting BACE1 to combat AD. These approaches offer a promising avenue to mitigate the progression of AD and provide a novel therapeutic strategy. Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative condition characterized by progressive cognitive impairment, memory deterioration, and neuronal dysfunction. Its complex pathophysiology involves multiple interlinked processes, including amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and cholinergic deficits. Current FDA-approved therapies provide only symptomatic relief and fail to halt disease progression, highlighting the urgent need for more effective treatment strategies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the pathological mechanisms underlying AD and the emerging therapeutic targets for the design of tractable anti-AD scaffolds, namely, acetylcholinesterase, beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β), dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A), histone deacetylases (HDACs), and soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH). Emphasis is placed on the paradigm shift from single-target therapies to multitarget-directed ligands (MTDLs), which are increasingly recognized as promising tools to tackle AD's multifactorial pathology. We also discuss recent advances in medicinal chemistry and structure-guided drug discovery campaigns aimed at developing pharmacologically optimized, BBB-penetrant MTDLs. By consolidating mechanistic insights with therapeutic innovation, this review aims to facilitate the development of next-generation therapeutics with enhanced efficacy and disease-modifying potential in AD. Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex, multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder in which numerous interconnected pathological processes, such as cholinergic deficits, Aβ and tau aggregation, oxidative stress, metal dyshomeostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation, synergistically drive neuronal damage and cognitive decline. This heterogeneity has limited the effectiveness of the clinically available single-target therapies which only provide symptomatic relief and underscores the need for molecular frameworks capable of addressing multiple pathogenic pathways simultaneously to stop the progression of the disease. Hydrazones have emerged as highly versatile scaffolds in medicinal chemistry thanks to their straightforward synthesis, structural adaptability, and rich repertoire of interaction modes with different biological targets. In recent literature, an increasing number of hydrazone-based molecules have been designed as multitarget-directed ligands (MTDLs) to modulate key enzymes and pathological mechanisms relevant to AD. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of hydrazone-containing compounds reported over the last years (2020-2025) with potential application in AD therapy, highlighting their activity on classical targets, especially cholinesterases (ChEs), as well as emerging targets including carbonic anhydrase, BACE1, and α-glycosidase. Particular emphasis is placed on structure-activity relationships (SARs), multitarget profiles, and rational design strategies aimed at exploiting the hydrazone moiety to address the multifactorial nature of AD. Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex neurological ailment that is associated with memory loss, confusion, and mood disturbances. Genetic, molecular, and cellular factors, including oxidative stress, inflammation, neurotransmitter alterations, and amyloid β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), are associated with the disease. These can be associated with protein and DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, energy shortages, inflammation, and hippocampal neuron death. Circular non-coding RNAs (circRNAs) are covalently closed and essential to many physiological and pathological processes. CircRNA may be a molecular modulator of neurodegeneration, as it may influence protein transcription and interaction with essential RNA-binding proteins (RBP) in the cortical and hippocampal regions, particularly in photoreceptor neurons and white matter.Insulin-like Growth Factor 2 mRNA-Binding Protein 3. (IGF2BP3), which belongs totheinsulin-like growth factor 2 encoded mRNA-binding protein family, affects neuronal differentiation, synaptic plasticity, translation, localization, mRNA stability, and neurogenesis. Research indicates that IGF2BP3 has been reported to modulate neuron survival and function genes, as well as BACE1 translation, which creates Aβ. AD has a complex etiology; thus, understanding its molecular processes is crucial. Investigating circRNAs and IGF2BP3 activities may reveal new disease are associated with and therapy options. This review explores the emerging roles ofcircRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets inmanagingAD. Show less

Disruption of circadian rhythms is increasingly recognized as a contributor to cognitive dysfunction, but its role in gestation-associated cognitive changes remains unexplored. Here we combine human cognitive screening with a comprehensive longitudinal mouse model to investigate whether gestational cognitive impairment and postpartum recovery are coupled with disruption and restoration of hippocampal circadian rhythms. Cognitive function was assessed in pregnant and postpartum women using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). In mice, four reproductive stages were compared: control, gestation, 1 month postpartum, and 3 months postpartum. Serum gonadotropins and sex hormones levels were quantified using ELISA. Home-cage locomotor activity was recorded over 48 h under a 12 h:12 h light-dark cycle. Hippocampal-dependent memory was evaluated using the novel object recognition test and Barnes maze at Zeitgeber times ZT6 (day) and ZT18 (night). Hippocampal amyloid β (Aβ) deposition was visualized via immunofluorescence; protein expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP), β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1), and phosphorylated tau was measured by Western blots. Hippocampal clock gene expression was quantified by RT-qPCR at six time points; circadian parameters (mesor, amplitude, acrophase) were derived by cosinor analysis and compared between groups. Human cognitive screening confirmed modest gestational decline with postpartum recovery. In mice, gestation disrupted daily locomotor activity rhythms and reduced nocturnal preference; both partially recovered by 1 month and fully by 3 months postpartum. Behaviourally, pregnancy impaired the normal day-night difference and performance in novel object exploration and Barnes maze, which recovered progressively. At the molecular level, gestation increased hippocampal APP and BACE1 expression, elevated Aβ42 deposition, and induced tau hyperphosphorylation at multiple sites-hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease-related pathology. These alterations partially reversed by 1 month postpartum and normalized by 3 months. Hippocampal clock genes maintained 24 h rhythmicity, but gestation induced gene-specific phase shifts, amplitude reductions, and mesor alterations. These parameters showed gradual, gene-dependent normalization postpartum. Gestational cognitive impairment and postpartum recovery are associated with reversible disruption and restoration of both hippocampal circadian rhythms and Alzheimer's disease-related molecular pathology. These findings are correlational in nature and provide a foundation for future causal investigations. Show less

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), represent a growing global health challenge characterized by progressive neuronal loss and a lack of definitive disease-modifying treatments. This review explores the emerging potential of targeting non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and exosomal RNAs, to modulate pathogenic molecular pathways and address the underlying molecular origins of neurodegeneration. We evaluate the integration of advanced computational techniques for RNA structure prediction and gene regulatory network analysis, alongside chemical engineering strategies-such as Locked Nucleic Acids (LNAs) and phosphorothioate modifications-aimed at enhancing the stability and specificity of RNA-based molecules. Furthermore, we analyze cutting-edge delivery and editing technologies, including nanotechnology-driven solutions for precise neuronal targeting and the CRISPR/Cas13 system for direct ncRNA manipulation.The findings indicate that while challenges in delivery efficiency and long-term efficacy persist, the synergy of chemical engineering and computational modeling significantly improves the therapeutic profile of ncRNAs, with exosomal pathways offering a novel route for intercellular signaling modulation and biomarker discovery. Therapeutic interventions directed at specific clinical targets, such as miR-34a and BACE1-AS, demonstrate the capacity to influence protein aggregation and neuroinflammatory cascades. Although ncRNA-based therapies are currently in nascent stages, ongoing technological advancements in RNA editing and nanotechnology offer a transformative framework that could redefine the future of ND treatment and successfully halt disease progression rather than merely managing symptoms. Show less

Bergamottin is a natural furanocoumarin compound that possesses antioxidative and anticancer properties. However, the effect of bergamottin (BGM) on acute kidney injury (AKI) is unknown. Human renal tubular HK-2 cells and mice that received cisplatin were pretreated with BGM, after which their cytotoxicity and renal function were evaluated. BGM pretreatment alleviated cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity Show less

Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are characterized by progressive neuronal degeneration, predominantly caused by the accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and neuroinflammatory processes. Hypoxia, characterized by diminished oxygen levels, intensifies these mechanisms by stimulating hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), potentially enhancing BACE1 enzyme activity and resulting in increased Aβ synthesis and render neurons especially susceptible to hypoxia, exacerbating disease progression. Existing therapies are constrained by inadequate medication distribution across the blood-brain barrier and associated adverse effects. This study aims to identify potential therapeutic agents targeting HIF-1 We used Results identified several compounds with strong binding affinities and favorable ADMET profiles as potential inhibitors of HIF-1 Show less

Autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease (ADAD) serves as a model for presymptomatic biomarker discovery. Characterising the temporal profile of plasma biomarker levels in presymptomatic individuals may enhance understanding of disease pathogenesis, inform future clinical trials, and guide clinical interpretation. We evaluated 124 proteins using a NUcleic acid-Linked Immuno-Sandwich Assay (NULISA) panel in 270 plasma samples from a longitudinal cohort study of ADAD, comprising 113 individuals (73 mutation carriers and 40 non-carriers). We determined the plasma proteomic changes that distinguished mutation carriers from non-carriers. We then used predicted age at symptom onset to determine the approximate timing of presymptomatic divergence in biomarker levels in carriers relative to non-carriers. Nine proteins (Aβ42, BACE1, GFAP, pTau181, pTau231, pTau217, MAPT, NfL, and AChE) robustly differed between carriers and non-carriers, cross-sectionally. Longitudinal analyses showed Aβ42 levels were elevated in carriers at least 26 years before expected symptom onset. Carriers diverged from non-carriers in phosphorylated tau markers at 21-24 years before expected symptoms, total-tau at 19 years, GFAP and BACE1 at 14 years, and NfL at 6 years. Differences in AChE were seen in symptomatic individuals, likely reflecting cholinesterase inhibitor use. Multiple plasma proteins are elevated in presymptomatic and symptomatic autosomal dominant AD mutation carriers relative to non-carriers. Changes in eight biomarkers occur sequentially from 26 to 6 years prior to symptom onset. Combining biomarkers may help in staging presymptomatic AD and optimise clinical trial inclusion. Further work is needed to assess how these findings generalise to non-monogenic AD. The molecular pathology of Alzheimer's disease develops many years before the onset of symptoms, and multiple plasma biomarkers of Alzheimer's pathology have been identified. Understanding the timing of biomarker abnormality is important to guide trial design for the timing of interventions to prevent the onset of dementia. Using an autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease cohort, we identify multiple plasma biomarkers that distinguish mutation carriers from non-carrier familial controls and characterise the timing of these changes relative to symptom onset. We demonstrate that biomarkers show change many years before symptom onset: markers of abnormal tau phosphorylation more than 20 years prior, followed by markers of reactive astrocytosis and synaptic dysfunction approximately 15 years prior, and neurodegenerative markers within 10 years of symptoms. Plasma biomarkers could be used in pre-clinical autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease to chart disease trajectories and predict symptom onset, allowing targeted disease-modifying therapy implementation and optimised clinical trial design. Show less

To investigate cognitive status in patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD) and its association with lung tissue transcriptomic alterations, and to propose potential lung-brain interaction mechanisms and clinical implications. We enrolled 45 ILD patients and 45 age-matched controls and compared Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) total and subscale scores. Baseline laboratory and pulmonary function characteristics of ILD were summarized. Using lung tissue RNA-seq data from GSE213001 {29 ILD cases [20 idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), 9 non-IPF], 14 non-diseased controls [NDC], totaling 139 samples}, we performed PCA, differential expression analysis using the limma-voom framework with the duplicate Correlation function to account for within-donor correlations (threshold |log ILD patients showed significantly lower MMSE total scores than healthy controls, with notable declines in attention/calculation and orientation. At the transcriptomic level, PCA clearly separated ILD from NDC, whereas IPF and non-IPF did not form distinct subgroups. Differential analysis identified 1,544 DEGs (1,142 upregulated; 402 downregulated). Enrichment analysis confirmed strong signals for inflammatory and fibrotic pathways. In an exploratory analysis, we also observed enrichment for terms related to nervous system function. The expression trends of several genes previously implicated in neurocognitive contexts, including PSEN1, PSEN2, BACE1, showed a directional concordance with patterns described in neurodegenerative contexts. This study provides preliminary evidence linking ILD to cognitive impairment on screening and identifies intriguing overlaps between lung tissue transcriptomic alterations and pathways relevant to brain function. These convergent observations lend biological plausibility to, and motivate further investigation of, a lung-brain axis hypothesis in ILD. The findings highlight the need to consider cognitive health in ILD management and warrant validation in longitudinal cohorts with detailed neuropsychological phenotyping. Show less

The Late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) is progressive cognitive deficits associated with different abnormalities as cholinergic dysfunction, amyloid accumulation, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Magnolol is a polyphenolic compound that abrogated the neurodegenerative disease. The application of nanoparticles in medicine showed high bioavailability and low side effects for development of novel effective therapies. This study evaluated the neuroprotective potential of magnolol nanoparticles against streptozotocin (STZ) injected in intracerebroventricularly (ICV) induced Alzheimer's disease (AD) in rats. In current study, six groups of male Wister rats (10 rats/ group) were injected with STZ (2 mg/kg) in ICV bilaterally for induction of pathological features similar to AD. Rats were then treated with either magnolol or nano-magnolol or donepezil (p.o). Behavioral analysis was evaluated as the Morris Water Maze (MWM), Y-Maze, Novel Object Recognition (NOR), Passive Avoidance (PA), Elevated plus Maze (EPM), and Open Field Test (OFT). In addition, biochemical markers including brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), B-secretase1 (BACE1) activities and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) were analyzed in hippocampal tissue. Data obtained showed that nano-magnolol significantly showed a neuroprotective effect in LOAD rat model by restoring GST activity and effectively decreased the activities of AChE, BACE1 and level of NF-κB compared to both donepezil and magnolol. Molecular docking studies indicated strengthen the affinity of magnolol to the BACE-1 active site. Nano-magnolol is promising in developing a new agent targeting cholinergic function, amyloidogenesis, neuro-inflammation, and oxidative stress reflecting its potent neuroprotective efficacy in AD treatment. Show less

β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1, a β-secretase) is a key aspartyl protease that initiates the proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) to form the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide. Given that Aβ aggregation and plaque formation are a central pathological feature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), BACE1 remains a critical therapeutic target. Furthermore, the complexity of AD pathology necessitates the identification of novel multi-target agents. This study employed a structure-based virtual screening, targeting the BACE1 approach to identify the potential BACE1 inhibitors from FDA-approved drug scaffolds derived from the ZINC database. Top-ranked candidates were subsequently validated through extensive 500 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-026-46708-2. Show less

Glycosyltransferases that biosynthesize glycans and their genes (glycogenes) play important roles in health and disease. In general, pathophysiological changes are defined by comparing knock-out (KO) or knock-in mice generated using CRISPR-Cas9 and other technologies to normal mice. Next, target molecules such as glycoproteins, glycolipids, and proteoglycans to which various biosynthetic glycans bind were identified. As a result, we found that N-glycan branches biosynthesized by glycosyltransferases are intrinsically involved in Alzheimer's disease, cancer metastasis, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT)/mesenchymal epithelial transition (MET), type 2 diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and ulcerative colitis. For example, the addition of core fucose biosynthesized by α1,6-fucosyltransferase (Fut8) leads to dysregulation of TGF-β receptors. Bisecting N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) biosynthesized by β-1,4-GlcNAc transferase III (GnT-III) affects the subcellular localization of Beta-site Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaving Enzyme 1 (β-secretase 1, referred to as BACE1). β1,6GlcNAc branching biosynthesized by GnT-V leads to the modification of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP). Identification and characterization of N-glycan structures on these proteins were performed using a glycoproteomic approach based on lectin blotting, western blotting, liquid chromatography-electron spray ionization mass spectrometry, and histochemical staining. Recently, studies concerning redox regulation of N-glycans, termed Glyco-Redox, have emerged as a promising approach. Functional and pathophysiological glycan studies are one of the main goals of glycobiology research. In this review, we describe the role of N-glycan branching glycosyltransferases and their biosynthesized glycans in relation to various diseases, such as cancer metastasis, COPD, Alzheimer's disease, and ulcerative colitis. Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents the most prevalent form of neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by progressive cognitive impairments and a scarcity of effective treatments. Salvianolic acid A (SalA), a natural phytochemical endowed with antioxidative, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties, emerges as a promising therapeutic candidate for AD. This study explored the therapeutic efficacy and underlying mechanisms of SalA in mitigating AD-related pathologies. Through integrative network pharmacology, molecular docking, and pathway enrichment analysis, p38 MAPK and NF-κB were identified as potential targets of SalA in the context of AD. SalA treatment inhibited the activation of the p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathway via targeting p38 MAPK, leading to decreased levels of IL-1α and IL-1β in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated HMC3 cells. In an in vivo 3 × Tg-AD mouse model, SalA administration ameliorated cognitive decline associated with AD, decreased tau protein hyperphosphorylation in the hippocampus and cortex, and reduced amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation and β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) levels. Furthermore, SalA attenuated the activation of the p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathway and the expression of related inflammatory cytokines in the brains of 3 × Tg-AD mice. In conclusion, this study elucidates the promising ameliorative effects of SalA on improving AD pathology, primarily through the modulation of the p38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway. Show less

Dementia, marked by a decline in mental abilities like memory that interferes with daily life, is primarily caused by Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Symplocos racemosa, rich in acetyl oleanolic acid, serves as a neuroprotective agent by lowering amyloid β levels in the brain. This study aims to develop a nanoemulsion for the targeted delivery of S. racemosa phytoconstituents to enhance therapeutic efficacy against dementia. The study also aims to find out the mechanism of the responsible molecules via molecular docking studies. S. racemosa bark was ultrasonically extracted with methanol and ethyl acetate, yielding six phytoconstituents: ellagic acid, betulinic acid, acetyl oleanolic acid, salireposide (from methanol), oleanolic acid, symlocoside (from ethyl acetate), isolated by column chromatography. Molecular docking against AChE and BACE-1 was conducted using CB Dock-2. A chitosan- based nanoemulsion containing all six compounds was prepared to enhance brain delivery and was physically characterized. All isolated phytoconstituents and nanoemulsions were evaluated for their in vitro enzyme inhibition (AChE and BACE-1) potential. Its anti-dementia efficacy was evaluated in scopolamine-induced rodent models using Hebb-Williams and Elevated Plus Maze tests, complemented by histopathological analysis of the brain cortex to assess therapeutic effects. Docking studies showed acetyl oleanolic acid had stronger binding to BACE-1 and AChE than donepezil. This was further supported by an in vitro enzyme inhibition assay. Nanoemulsion at 200 and 400 mg/kg significantly reduced the time taken by memory-impaired mice to complete the Hebb-Williams Maze and transfer latency in the Elevated Plus Maze. Histopathological analysis showed a significant recovery of cortical damage. This indicates that the nanoemulsion has strong potential for the treatment of Alzheimer 's-related neurodegeneration. The neuroprotective action of S. racemosa nanoemulsion (SRMN) is attributed to the large-scale presence of its phytoconstituents, which reportedly exhibit a better binding affinity and inhibitory action against AChE and BACE-1 than donepezil. Additionally, the nanoemulsion enhanced bioavailability, stability, and blood-brain barrier penetration, which in turn improved therapeutic outcomes. From behavioral and histological studies, we observed that SRMN performed well in terms of memory improvement and cortical protection, suggesting that it is a very good multi-target approach for dementia. The prepared nanoemulsion from S. racemosa's isolated phytoconstituents is reported to exhibit synergistic action, thereby effectively managing dementia through BACE-1 and AChE inhibition. Show less

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and neuronal dysfunction. Despite thorough research efforts, effective disease-modifying treatments have yet to be discovered. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), small noncoding RNAs that control gene expression after transcription, have become key factors in AD development. Changes in miRNA levels influence critical molecular pathways such as amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing, tau phosphorylation, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and synaptic plasticity, all of which contribute to neuronal damage. By increasing β-secretase (BACE1) activity, downregulation of miR-29a/b and miR-107 encourages the buildup of amyloid-β (Aβ) and the development of plaques. Through the deregulation of the CDK5 and MAPK pathways, overexpression of miR-125b and decreased levels of miR-132/212 lead to tau hyperphosphorylation. While oxidative stress-associated miRNAs like miR-34a and miR- 21 worsen mitochondrial malfunction and neuronal death, pro-inflammatory miRNAs like miR-146a and miR-155 cause NF-κB-mediated signalling and glial activation. Circulating miRNAs found in blood and cerebral fluid are potential, minimally invasive indicators for tracking the course of a disease and making early diagnoses. Additionally, therapeutic manipulation with antagomiRs or miRNA mimics has the potential to prevent neurodegeneration and restore normal gene regulation. This review deciphers the molecular mechanisms underlying miRNA dysregulation in AD and explores their translational potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. A comprehensive understanding of miRNA-protein interaction networks could facilitate the development of targeted, precision- based interventions for Alzheimer's disease. Show less

Accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ) peptide in the brain is a characteristic pathological feature of Alzheimer's disease that occurs several decades before the onset of symptoms. Aβ is produced from the membrane-bound amyloid β precursor protein (APP) by β-secretase 1 (BACE1) and γ-secretase-mediated proteolytic cleavage. Alternatively, ADAM10/17 α-secretase and γ-secretase cleavage does not generate Aβ. Accumulating evidence indicates that intracellular trafficking of APP to each secretase determines the level of Aβ production. In this chapter, we summarize how glycosylation affects the Aβ production, possibly by modulating the intracellular localization of APP and its secretases. Show less

Aluminum toxicity in rodents is well documented to be used for inducing experimental models that mimic the clinical phenotypes of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Liraglutide is a well-known antidiabetic drug promising for modulating neurodegenerative conditions. Thus, investigating the ameliorative effects of Liraglutide on AD induced by aluminum chloride (AlCl Show less